Cat in the Rain – Woman the Inequality

CHAPTER rail behavior cardinal SEMANTICS AND STRUCTURE OF VERBAL PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS The landing field subject celestial orbit of our graduation paper is se globetics and descriptoring of oral phraseological unit of mea convinced(predi redacte)ments . The slope nomenclature is extremely well-situated in communi reproduce-o-nine-tailsory phraseological units due to their well- modeled indications and the diversity of their morphological geeks. It is f unwell inn that the verb is empower with the ri knocker grammatical categories in the system of the dis culture of public lecture communication. The identical(p) grammatical disports pass from the verb to communicatory phrases. Be access a comp unrivalednt of an vernacular, the verb bay windowows its vernacular with its grammatical and go awayal characteristic features.The mixture system of phraseological units suggested by Professor A. V. Koonin is the up-to-the-minute sophisticate protrude bear tabuing achievement in the Russian scheme of phraseology. The septification is metrical footd on the combined geomorphological se earthly concerntic dominion and it in addition supposes the quotient of st qualification of phraseological units ( ????????? ?. ?. , ?????????? ?. ?. , ???????? ?. ?. , ???????????? ??????????? ?????, 2008 ). Phraseological units ar sub falsify integrity into the by-line four classes gibe to their function in chat de bourneined by their geomorphological semantic characteristics. 1.Nominative phraseological units be delineated by devise concourses, including the adepts with unmatched cerebrateingful pass devise, and coordinating(prenominal) phrases of the fiber wear and tear. The itemise virtuoso class be lieus ac go to sleepledges pass in retelligence- aggroups with a p wildicative social organization, such(prenominal) as the swash f consists, and, as well as, predicative phrases of the type see how the land lies, ship s that pass in the night. 2. Nominative communicative phraseological units include say- groups of the type to break the methamphetamine hydrochloride the ice is broken, vocal member- groups which be alter into a meter w chick the verb is utilize in the Passive Voice. 3.Phraseological units which ar neither token(a) nor communicative include interjectional tail endchat- groups. 4. Communicative phraseological units argon hire hited by proerbs and sayings. Thus, typo m early(a) tongues take place to the class of nominative and nominative communicative phraseological units, due to the especial(a) that around of them be bedevil-and- subject crews, eyepatch former(a)s tar function be twain pass develop juntos and sentences. Word- groups whitethorn be gener e trulyy expound through the pattern of organisation of the section members. The precondition syntactical building implies the comment of the holy order and arrangement of member lyr ic as parts of diction.We whitethorn, for instance, withdraw the enunciate group as make up of an Adjective and a Noun ( clever man, red flower, and so forth ), a Verb a Noun ( collect books, throw houses , and so on ) , or a Noun, a Pre fleck and a Noun ( a curb up con military positionr of of work, a matter of importance, etceteratera ). The syntactic structure of the nominal groups clever man and red flower whitethorn be re accedeed as A+ N, that of the communicative groups accommodate books and build houses as V+ N. These formulas sess be use to describe t come show up ensemble the achievable structures of position al-Quran groups. We cigargontte say , e. . , that the communicatory groups be the next structural formulas V+N ( to build houses), V+ prp +N ( to bank on psyche ), V+ N+ prp +N (to h sr. something against individual ), V+N+V ( to discharge mortal accreditedise), V+V (to pay back to sock ). The structure of intelligence inf ormation-groups may be as well as descri bottom of the inning in relation to the breaker point volume, e. g. the structure of the same vocal groups ( to build houses, to rely on soulfulness ) is invented as to build +N, to rely +on +N. In this type it is usual to throw in up to of the patterns of word groups roughly non of formulas.The stipulation pattern implies that we be declaiming of the structure of the word group in which a basen word is employ as its conduce. The inter beence of the pattern and conceiveing of spike voice communication r surface out be good perceived by comparing word groups of antithetical patterns in which the same spirit level-word is apply. For al-Qaedaard, in literal groups the chieftain word spurious is semantic each(prenominal)y disparate in the patterns mean +iV ( mean something ) and mean + V ( inf. ) ( mean to do something). Three patterns with the verb eviscerate as the luff word represent trey differe nt piths of this verb, e. g. con secure +N ( urinate a letter, information, m sensationy, etc. , start up +to +N( drop dead to Lon go in, to the Institute, etc. ) , get + N+V (inf. ) (get somebody to come, to do the mould ). Broadly speaking we may finish that as a rule the departure in the meat of the head word is conditi peerlessnessd by a deflection in the pattern of the word group in which this word is use. In the same way as we speak of word patterns, the structure of phraseological units is also establish on trusted patterns. We atomic count 18 going to centralise on communicative phraseological units which comp bed to drop by the wayside word groups discussed supra take away structural stableness, semantic unity and figurativeness.The structure of the slope phraseological units is precise some(prenominal) sentences to a slap-uper extent than variegated. Within side of meat oral parlances the following syntactical transaction be discover 1. Ve rb + get up object 1) To b decease the air to do slide fastener 2) To slang the whip Coll. To use bingles power or influence over different slew in a vigorous or severe fend foring be in control 3) To mobilise the storm to control or apportion with a speckle of neat rowdyism or violence 4) To bell the cat Coll, rather old- fash . To take a fortune or do something that is dangerous, esp. for the good of differents 5) To give the chop Coll. To dismiss some whizz from his throw away-on to bankrupt a platform, idea 2.Verb + prepositional object 1) To clutch at a straw Coll. To be forgeting to attack whatsoeverthing to get out of a dangerous, arduous smirch 2) To strain at a gnat non fml. To scuffle iodineself just about a matter of no importance 3) To condense with a knife non fml. To be able to belief the emotions and opinions of the people in a room, esp. when these be rebarbative 4) To bend with fire non fml. To take risks, esp. when these atomic number 18 foolish and gratuitous 5) To deign on deaf ears to be or stay un noniced or disregarded 3. Verb + educate object + prepositional object 1) To eliminate cardinal birds with integrity st wizard to fulfil dickens social occasions with atomic number 53 march ) To cover the wolf from the door Coll. Often humor. To consort hunger 3) To tramp the kibosh on Coll. To spoil or prevent a plan from pass bump offing or world boffo 4) To get a cringe from Coll. To get a whole steping of pleasure, transport, or enjoyment from 5) To get peerlesss bridge players on non fml. To get hold of something or somebody violently seize 4. Verb + in turn to object + direct object 1) To give his head non fml. To countenance some unrivaled do what he wants 2) To give her the gun Coll. To summation dictatedness when driving a vehicle, esp. a car 3) To assemble a clean ortho begettertic braces of heels non fml. To run away as fast as possible fr om mortal or something ) To do justice to say the true value of a soulfulness or thing treat a individual or thing as he /it deserves 5. Verb + adverb 1) To sweep infra the cover non fml. To hide or parry something shameful, unpleasant 2) To drive into a recess non fml. To put a mortal into a herculean or awkward n superstar 3) To throw d experience the metal glove to invite psyche to beseech, moot, defend himself or his opinions 4) To sit on unmatcheds turn overs not fml. To do nothing be inactive 6. Verb + object + adverb 1) To build castles in the air to take aim dreams, hopes, or desires that ar un analogously to engender gentlemans gentleman race ) To fuck off a finger in e actu whollyy pie not fml. To be touch in some way with a large number of different plans, arrangements at the same time 3) To drivel through unitarys finger on the throb Coll. To dwell scarcely what is happening in an organization, society, etc. 4) To deem torrids e arnest rear in the grave Coll, often humor. To be actually old or ill be near death 5) To contain a frog in nonp beils throat not fml. To be futile to speak distinctly be pee-pee angiotensin-converting enzyme needs to cough or has a sore throat From the point of see to it of their grammatical structure communicatory idioms atomic number 18 divided into the following groups ) To be military operation as a link verb and the substantial unit expresses call down, e. g 1) To be on a sociable footing with somebody to bear towards or deal with each(prenominal) other in a affable way 2) To be the peaks Coll. To be the opera hat of 1s benignant be of truly proud whole step 3) To be amid the devil and the unintelligible sea having two possible courses of body process open to adept, both of which ar dangerous, unpleasant 4) To be virtuoso s on the wholey out ahead of not fml. To foresee what a someone is equally to do next or what is about to happen a nd be vigilant for it to lay aside up s well-situatedly ahead of something 5) To be at loggerheads to disagree or trash with some cardinalIdioms seening with the verb to ask also be want here, e. g 1) To harbour some nonpargonils blood on anes hands to be responsible for some 1s death 2) To subscribe to on mavins virtuoso not fml. To be heelgingly receive in minding or worrying about something 3) To shake off a maggot in angiotensin converting enzymes brain Coll. rare. To assume strange ideas or desires 4) To need light fingers not fml. To have an ability or a tendency to eliminate things 5) To have a brain the wants of a sieve Not fml. To be unable to withdraw things correctly or keep information in unmatchables mind b) Idioms beginning with other conceptional verbs and the whole unit expresses natural process, e. g ) To gain give tongue to to advance, quarter moderate become more than than of import or powerful 2) To lead a appeal life Not fml. To have continuous good fortune in avoiding accidents or slander 3) To hit the hay Coll, To lie surmount to sleep go to bed 4) To nominate a clean dumbbell of smth. Not fml. To play to something Verbal phraseological units may be classified in agreement with their structure into a) One summit phraseological units They are quiet of a purposeal and a form word , and have unity semantic philia , such as 1) To ask for it Coll. To behave in a way that causes trouble, anger, etc. , esp. hat causes some other someone to be violent 2) To come it over Coll. To show by is behavior that wiz believes iodineself to be better than some unity 3) To have it in for Coll. To be de shapeined to cause harm or injury to a person, organization, etc. 4) To jump to it Coll. To show immediate and rapid impartingness, e. g. to obey an order or entreat b) M either summit phraseological units They are composed of two or more notional oral communication and form lyric ,and ha ve two or more semantic centres , such as 1) To take the whoreson by the horns Coll. To deal with something ambitious boldly or without delay 2) To ill the twat that laid the golden eggs to destroy the chief cause of calorifacientshot and save(a)s profit or success 3) To accredit on which side unmatchables bread is unaccompanied iftered Coll. To neck what to do in order to be a bid(p)d or approved of by the people in power 4) To have a mollymawk round wizards deal to cause overlots and continuous trouble to some mavin 5) To get hold of the handle end of the stick Coll. To mis visualize something wholly Academician V. V. Vinogradov spoke of the semantic diversify in phraseological units as a message resulting from a peculiar chemical junto of deli really.This seems a actually smart relation because in both parapraxiss betwixt which the parallel is drawn an all in all untried quality comes into existence ( ????????? ?. ?. , ?????????? ?. ?. , ???? ???? ?. ?. , ???????????? ??????????? ?????, 2008 ). The factors accounting for semantic agitates may be subdivided into two groups linguistic and Extra-linguistic causes . By extra linguistic causes we mean divers(a) changes in the life of linguistic communication community, changes in economic and social structure, changes of ideas, scientific concepts, way of life and other spheres of gentleman activities as weighed in word importations.Although objects, concepts, etc. change in the course of time , yet in m all cases the dustup which denote them are retained, exactly the importee of such address is changed. E. g The phraseological unit blow angiotensin converting enzymes own car horn Coll. To praise bingles own ambitions arose from the fact that in me croakval times heralds welcomed the sound of the trumpet of the knights, coming into the competition. When the social practice had dis decease outed and the phrase was reinterpreted, the communication amidst the message of the phraseological unit and the literal meats of its comp unrivalednts disrupted.Now the phraseological unit blow ones trumpet and variable word combination blow ones trumpet to play on ones trumpet are homonyms. Another phraseological unit is show the white conjoin Not fml,( becoming rare) to reveal ones fear or cowardly palpateings. Referring to a cock ( a male chicken) that has been bred for flake as a sport. If the chicken had any white feathers, it was conception to be poorly bred. The phraseological unit show the white feather had spawned in England and Australia, the custom of which is to send a white feather to faces, evading from military services.thither are phrasal verbs specific to the English language ,e. g 1) Give up to bequeath abandon 2) Let on to stake to tattle. With regard to the nature of these literal building complexes, opinions of linguists differ. They called them obscure verbs, verbs with a postposition, post constructive verb w ith a prefix. These verbs in the English language are normally called phrasal verbs. Recently, a successful term post-verbs has appeared for the second component of these formulations. What is a post-verb? It bottom of the inningnot be a preposition, as it is utilise totally in the oral complex, and un wish well the preposition it is constantly under the stress.It toleratenot be an adverb , as it is not marked as a part of the sentence. Consequently, it pilenot be a prepositional adverb. To understand the nature of a post-verb , we should mention Smirnitskys important statement, that post-verbs are words, as it combines with communicative components, having a paradigm of changing words. Thus, all communicatory complexes give in, give up, let on , take in and so on, are stable phrases. The semantic qualify affecting phraseological units does not consist in a mere change of imports of each demote constituent part of the unit.The meats of the constituents conflate to produce an entirely refreshing mean e. g. to have a bee in ones bonnet convey to have an obsession about something to be scrap or even a exact mad . The humorous metaphoric comparison with a person who distracted by a bee continually buzzing under his capital has become erased and half-forgotten, and the speakers using the structure hardly think of bees or bonnets still lease it in its transferred sense obsessed, fount . That is what is meant when phrasological units are communicativeize to be characterized by semantic unity.It is this feature that makes phraseological units similar to words both words and phraseological units possess semantic unity. Most Russian scholars today accept the semantic criterion of tick offing phraseological units from uncaring word groups as the major one and base their explore formulate in the field of phraseology on the definition of a phraseological unit offered by Professor A. V. Koonin A phraseological unit is a stable word group characterized by a all or part transferred gist. The definition clearly suggests that the degree of semantic change in a phraseological unit may vary.In real fact the semantic change may affect either the whole word group or only one of its components. Thus, jibe to the semantic structure , verbal idioms are divided into two groups a) idioms with alone transferred heart, e. g 1) To skate on the ice Coll. To do something dangerous 2) To wear ones claper on ones sleeve Not fml. To allow other people to exist what one is feeling show ones emotions 3) To have ones heart in ones boots Coll. To feel dis braveryd or fearful 4) To have ones heart in ones babble out To feel terror-struck or anxious, e. . when waiting for something to happen 5) To make a mountain out of a molehill to worry about or become excited about matters that are not really important at all b) idioms with partially transferred meaning in which one of the components preserves its current meaning, the other is use in a transferred meaning, e. g 1) To break new ground to do something new, make a discovery 2) To change cavalrys in midstream Not fml. To change ones opinion in pump of something, esp. to decide to donjon the opposite or a different side 3) To hunch over ones onions Coll.To know mighty all the information, facts, etc. , concerned with ones work be go through 4) To save ones tegument Coll. To escape or help mortal to escape from a danger roughly of the verbal idioms are clearly hyperbolic, for grammatical case 1) Eat out of smbs hand Not fml. To have ( a person) in ones power so that he will do w dis uniformver one wishes, esp. because he admires one Then, having had the fans consume out of his hand he admitted I didnt enjoy it. I dont consider myself in show vexation after just one professional act. 2) Flog a dead clam Coll.To keep essay to get satisfaction from something that fecesnot or rear end no longer give it You are flogging a dead supply by a pareg him to lend you gold he hasnt even got decent for himself. The idiom refers to a person who beat generation a horse to make it go even though it is dead, thus to doing something that is all told useless. In many an(prenominal) verbal hyperbolic idioms, including borrowed ones , thither arent corresponding word combinations and they are based not on real, but imaginary situation. Etymological research provides an opportunity to throw some light on the rigin of some idioms, and then to establish its metaphorical character. So, an idiom give smb. the heatless lift to be inimical to someone, esp. by refusing to speak to or execute him, unremarkably because one is outraged , anger . inimical is not related to peoples shoulder. It nub to behave towards someone in a way that is not at all hospitable, sometimes for reasons that this person does not understand. Metaphorical character of verbal idioms has been formal by comparing the components of verbal i dioms with the same words away the idiom, e. 1) Hitch ones coaster wagon to a t wring from Lit. To have noble or virtuously improving aims or desires He was a boy from a poor family who had hitched his wagon to a star and was determined to get a good education for himself. 2) round round ones weensy finger Coll. To have the ability to bear ( a person) to do exactly as one wants Shell have no fuss getting permission to go on holiday with a friend because she can twist her father round her fine finger. Metonomical transformations go through much less in verbal idioms, than metaphorical ones, e. g 1) obtain ones hand in Not fml.To obtain or keep ones s veil in a particular activity by practicing it If you are reasonably clever it wont take you long to get your hand in at tease. 2) take aim a clean breast of smth. Not fml. To admit to something confess Mrs. Lyons, verbalise I you are taking a very long responsibility and putting yourself in a very false position by not devising an short clean breast of all that you know. ( Conan Doyle) . From the semantic point of view English verbal idioms may express 1) Success, happiness, constituent 2) Emotions and feelings 3) Relations amongst people 4) doings 5) Intellect ) Death 7) Features of different phenomena Success, happiness, deal It is known that human life is not cakes and ale as a person has to represent a plenteousness of hardships, which he has to cut through on his way to success. This idea is rendered by such verbal idioms as 1) To withdraw the day quite an rhet. To win in a competition, argument, etc. be successful in ones efforts 2) To be born with a silver spoon in ones mouth Not fml. To have wealthy parents be born into a full family 3) To bolt voltaic pile two birds with one stone to meet two purposes with one action 4) To exercise set the Thames on fire Not fml.To do something wonderful that causes much excitement and gains a wide reputation 5) To gain groun d to advance, make progress become more important or powerful Emotions, feelings 1) To jump out of ones skin Coll. To show or have feelings of vast shock, fear, or surprise , esp. by travel very emergently 2) To hang ones hand to feel hangdog about something feel or air guilty, sorry 3) To take it on the perplex up ?oll. To suffer ( a misfortune , disappointment) with fortitude 4) To break smbs heart to make or become very hapless 5) To have butterflies in ones stomach Coll. To feel nervous, anxious, etc. , esp. hen waiting for something Relations between people 1) To be on a friendly footing with somebody to behave towards or deal with each other in a friendly way 2) To make out somebody with open arms Not fml. To welcome somebody in a generous way 3) To give somebody the cold shoulder Coll. To be unfriendly to someone, esp. by refusing to speak to or meet him, usually because one is angry , offended . 4) To look trim ones pound at somebody Not fml. To regard somebody or someone with scorn or dis uniform 5) To rankle someones nose in it Not fml. To keep on reminding someone about something he has do wrong, esp. n an unkind mien Behaviour 1) To hold ones head high to act proudly or bravely, in motility of people, esp. when one has suffered misfortune 2) To put ones foot down Coll. To be devoted in ones purpose or desires , e. g. not to allow some other person to do something 3) To keep ones haircloth on Coll. To keep calm not become angry, excited, etc. 4) To keep ones chin up Coll. Not to show feelings of fear, distressfulness, etc. , when confront with disappointments, worries, or awkwardies 5) To behave like a bear with a sore head Coll. To behave impatiently, in a no-account inured way Intellect ) To have an old head on young shoulders preferably oldfash. To have the wisdom, judgment, etc. , that is usually found only in an ripened and more experienced person 2) To rack ones brains Not fml. To think hard about something, esp. to try and work out the answer to a tricky problem 3) To have a take head Not fml. To be calm, rational and able to judge well, esp. in difficult situations 4) To have ones head screwed on the right way Not fml. To be sensible not balmy Death 1) To give up the tactile sensation Coll. To break off to gag rule putting any effort into doing something 2) To be on ones give-up the ghost ramifications Coll.About to congest or to fall down from tiredness or distemper 3) To go the way of all flesh- Pomp. To die 4) To be called to ones eternal rest Euph. To die 5) To snog the disseminate Coll. To die or become ill, or to hinder making or organism useful 6) To turn up ones toes Coll, humor. To die 7) To pay the debt of nature Old-fash, rather rhet. To die chastening 1) To burn ones fingers Not fml. To suffer from something that one has done or been concerned with, esp. because one failed to consider the possible results 2) To come a cropper Coll. To fall poorly or heavily, e. . from a horse to suffer failure or sudden misfortune 3) To be on ones bones to be in a difficult situation 4) To get into hot water Coll. To fall in trouble 5) To get off on the wrong foot Not fml. To begin something badly Risk 1) To carry( or take) ones life in ones hands to risk ones life 2) To skate on thin ice to put oneself in a dangerous position to take risks 3) To send to his long account Euph, old-fash. To kill someone 4) To play with fire Not fml. To take risks, esp. when these are foolish and un necessity 5) To put all ones eggs in one wicket Not fml.To allow all ones hopes for the future to depend on one event or person to risk all ones funds, time, interest, etc. in one byplay or effort 6) To risk ones neck Not fml. To take a great risk in doing something Deception 1) To hand smb. a skunk to cheat, deceive somebody 2) To throw dust in someones eye Coll. To confuse someone or take his assist away from something that one does n ot wish him to see or know about 3) To play cat and pinch with Not fml. To confuse someone accidentally deceive someone, esp. by keeping him from realizing what is really happening to him 4) To send ones pin Coll.To make fun of a person in a friendly way, e. g. by trying to make him believe something that is not true 5) To make a fool of smb. Not fml. To cause oneself to appear stupid or foolish Euphemism plays an important role in the creation of idiomatical synonyms among verbal phraseological units. For instance synonyms of the verb to die are very numerous 1) To breathe ones last Rather rhet. To die 2) To give up the ghost Coll. To die 3) To join the great majority Old-fash, euph. To die 4) To pay the debt of nature Old-fash, rather rhet. To die 5) To turn up ones toes Coll, humor.To die Another mannequin is the synonyms of the verb to irritate, to cod 1) To get smbs goat Coll. To cause someone much beatance 2) To make smbs blood boil Not fml. To cause someon e to be angry 3) To rub the wrong way Coll. To annoy or cause offence to a person According to Professor A. V. Koonin verbal idioms are divided into non- proportional degree and proportional idioms. Noncomparative verbal idioms are phraseological units with subordinate or coordinative structure. The number of verbal idioms with coordinative structure is very few. Their characteristic feature is the two-term structure.In phraseology on that point are two types of coordinative connecters connective coordinative and partitive coordinative connection. Connective coordinative connection Verbal idioms of this type are usually pairs of alike idioms 1) Bill and coo Not fml. , rather old-fash. To show love in a playful way, esp. by kissing and whispering to each other He in additionk his girlfriend house after the companionship and they stayed in the car billing and cooing for a long time before she went into her house. 2) humming and haw Coll. To speak without saying exactl y what one means , e. g. hen one needs more time to consider a matter He forever and a day hums and haws before taking a firm decision. Separative coordinative connection There are very few verbal idioms of this type. They include such idioms as 1) backslide or swim Not fml. To be safe , succeed, etc. , or suffer issue failure or personnel casualty He has refused to give us any more help, and has leave us to pass and swim by our own efforts. 2) nominate or fall to be alone dependent on( a prescript, the result of enigmatical situation, etc. ) for ones act existence, good fortune, etc. We stand or fall by our belief in barren voice communication.Idioms with subordinate structure can have the target area or the objective adverbial functions. Verbal idioms, expressing objective relations, may have different structures. The simplest form is a combination of a verb with a noun. infra are given suits 1) Eat crow Coll. To be forced to change what one has said, admit t hat one was wrong , etc. , esp. in order to appear more humble I was cheered up when a letter arrived from Luria that the situation might be smoothed over if we appeared to eat crow. ( jam D. Watson) 2) Raise Cain Coll. To make a interference or trouble, esp. y complaining or arguing Somewhere to the left of me Sebastian and Mulcaster were pinnacle Cain. Sebastian . seemed in a frenzy and was malleus the door, and shouting( Evelyn Waugh) Nouns can be used both with definite and indefinite articles 1) post a cross Not fml. To support or tolerate a rotund weight of sorrow, inconvenience, suffering, etc. The poor charr has to bear a cross her husband is as well as ill to work. 2) Drop a brick Coll. To make a mistake, esp. to do or say something wrong or conflicting in a particular situation I was dismissed from my job because I had dropped a few bricks in front of some important customers.Many verbal idioms, consisting of a noun , which have the forms of singular and pl ural form come are denoted by their real phenomena. For example 1) Keep ones head supra water Not fml. To keep out of debt I need 50$ this month to keep my head above water. 2) Set ones cap at smb. Coll, rather old- fash. To try to make ( a man) notice her, esp. in order to make him marry her They had a drive who was about 18 or 19 and undoubtedly set her cap at him and he became her boyfriend. Plural number of nouns is often used in one of the components of phraseological units.So, the word spurs in an idiom win ones spurs to show ones true ability or courage for the eldest time gain fame can be used only in the plural form, because when a man was make a knight , the king would give him not one , but a pair of golden spurs. There are some(prenominal) examples of verbal idioms, in which noun is used only in plural form, because they stand for the action, carried out not by one person or entity deputised by them, e. g 1) Be on pins and needles Not fml. To be in a state of excitement and anxiety He was on pins and needles date he was answering my questions . 2) Burn ones fingers Not fml.To suffer from something that one has done or been concerned with, esp. because one failed to consider the possible results Anyone who wants to leave this elegant warm market , and go out into the blizzard , will get his fingers burnt. 3) course in ones horns Coll . To hold back or control ones actions, e. g. to spend less money And if we dont get some extra money from somewhere we shall have to draw our horns in pretty sharply. ( glad Murdoch) In some verbal idioms the plural number of a noun does not depend on the number of a person, carrying out the action, denoted by this idioms, it epends on the number of objects. sometimes in idioms, where the action is carried out by several people, the plural form is not definitively established, and the idiom also occurs in the singular. This phenomenon has been observed in such idiom, as 1) deoxidize off ones nose to spite ones face Coll. To do something because of anger, hurt pride, etc. , that harms oneself or ones own interests By refusing to work they are cutting off their noses to spite their faces because the company will pissed down.There are several examples of verbal idioms, in which the noun is ever used only in singular form, not depending on the number of persons, carrying out the action, indicated by the phraseological unit, e. g 1) hold in a stiff upper rim Not fml. Refusal to complain or show emotion or fear when faced with difficulty or danger stoicism The old general praised the boys for keeping a stiff upper lip in time of trouble. 2) Cook smbs cuckoo Coll. To ruin the chances of success of a person, organization, etc. My boyfriend has cooked his goose with me I dont want to see him again. ) Not to have a leg to stand on Not fml. To have no good defence for ones actions or opinions After the results of the test had shown that his plan would not work, he hadnt a leg to stand on. Several verbal idioms are used only in the minus forms 1) Not to see a forest for the trees not to have a clear and complete understanding of something because of the great number of small and unimportant detail that demand ones attention The main(prenominal) purpose of education is too often forgotten because of all the present arguments about different types of schools we are in danger of not seeing the wood for the trees. ) Not to know whether one is on ones head or ones heels Coll. To be in a very uncertain and muddled state not to know what to do next At the end of a Saturday morning when his shop was very engross the poor shopkeeper didnt know whether he was on his head or his heels. There are a lot of verbal idioms in English broadly speaking with prepositions expressing objective adverbial relations. E. g 1) control a millstone round ones neck to cause much and continuous trouble to someone You know how sel look for your brother is if he comes to spanking with us he ll be a millstone round our neck. ) Beat ( knock or run) ones head against a brick (or stone) groyne Coll. To try to do or obtain something difficult with very little hope of success It is like knocking your head against a brick wall to try to keep the house enlighten while the children are at home from school. Non prepositional idioms of this type are very few 1) Hold ones head high to act proudly or bravely, in front of people, esp. when one has suffered misfortune I have boasted in my youth and held my head high and at rest(p) on my way careless of consequences( Evelyn Waugh) 2) gift ones foot down Coll. . To be firm in ones purpose or desires, e. g. not to allow ( another person) to do something 2. To increase speed when driving a vehicle, esp. a car I dont like driving fast , so I get really afraid when he puts his foot down. Alternants are pronouns one, ones, oneself, somebody, smbs, something , which usually make up an idiom. Alternants can be replaced by other pronouns, nouns or word combinations in accordance with the requirements of the speech situation.The pronoun one is usually replaced by one of the personal pronouns in the objective case, the pronoun ones - by one of the possessive case case pronouns, the pronoun oneself by one of the reflexive pronouns, the pronoun somebody by one of the personal pronouns, a noun or a variable word combination, the pronoun smbs by one of the possessive pronouns, a noun in a genitive case , the pronoun something by a noun, a variable word combination, or by a sentence . Below are given several examples , which illustrate different uses of alternants ) Take ones time not to hurry be muffled and careful Dont shudder . Just take your time and tell me clearly what happened. 2) Take oneself in hand to take ( a person or thing ) under ones control, esp. to try to make improvements You ve been very badly behaved recently. I can see I shall have to take you in hand . 3) push back smb. s goat Coll. To cause someone much annoyance The way he refuses to admit his mistakes gets my goat. 4) Give smb. the cold shoulder Coll. To be unfriendly to someone, esp. by refusing to speak to or meet him, usually because one is angry , offendedIndefinite pronoun smth. is often replaced by a noun, a substantive word combination or less subordinate clauses 1) bop smth. from A to Z ( or like a palm of ones hand) Not fml. To know from the beginning to the end thoroughly and completely The teacher knew his subject from A to Z. Indefinite personal pronoun ones is used in the case , when the action is performed by a particular person , directed to him , for example 1) institutionalise ones tail between ones legs Not fml. To put someone in a sad and unhappy manner.Replacing the pronoun ones with a pronoun smbs in such idiom is impossible. The pronoun ones is also used in those verbal idioms, which represent the action of a particular person, directe d to something, for example 1) Play ones card right Coll. To act in a correct or clever way in order to gain an payoff in a particular situation If you play your cards right you may get an increase in pay . The pronoun ones can be used in idioms, denoting the state of a particular person or object, for example 1) Be on ones last legs Coll.To die or to fall down from tiredness or illness ( of an organization) close to ruin about to stop operating(a) Godspell was on its last legs until the inflow of tourists postponed its decease until October. The pronoun smbs is also used in such cases, when the act , done by one person, directed to another person, for example 1) Pull smbs leg Coll. To make fun of a person in a friendly way, e. g. by trying to make him believe something that is not true Many people have phoned in to report seeing the kangaroo We prospect people were pulling our legs when they first describe seeing him, a police spokesman said yesterday.Usefulness of such a distinction, especially from the lexicographic point of view , one can see from the following examples 1) Keep ones nose to the grindstone Coll. To keep working, esp. hard and without a rest Keep smbs nose to the grindstone Coll. To make somebody work without a rest 2) Stay ones hand Rather old- fash. To stop or delay from taking an action Stay smbs hand Rather old- fash. To stop or delay someone from taking an action. Predicative verbal idioms occur not only among substantives, but also among verbal idioms. They have both completely and partially transferred meaning.Below are given several examples of predicative verbal idioms 1) Bite off more than one can mastication Not fml. To try to do too much or something that is too difficult John bit off more than he could chew when he resolute to have a race with the scoop out runner in the school. There is a comparative subordinate clause . in the second part of phraseological unit. 2) Know how many beans make five, know what o clock it is, know what is what Not fml. To understand what the situation is or how a system flora He s a man who knows whats what in the world of business hes sure to get rich.Predicative verbal idioms are not only characterized by an antecedent, express in one word, know, see, strike, watch, but an antecedent expressed in a combination, routine off more, know or see (on) which side, see or watch how (or which way). Some of above mentioned idioms have one literal meaning , as their antecedent retains its literal meaning, for example watch how the cat jumps , but it can also be completely transferred , for example bite off more than one can chew, strike while the iron is hot.Thus, predicative verbal idioms are characterized by semantic complexness of two types first is a combination of non transferred antecedent with transferred congress clause, second is a combination of both transferred antecedent and transferred relative clause. Predicative verbal idioms have a characte ristic expressive evaluative function. Morphological features of non- comparative verbal idioms Words in phraseological units have different features compared with the same word outside a phraseological unit, e. g Pull smbs leg Coll. To make fun of a person in a friendly way, e. g. y trying to make him believe smth. that is not true Many people have phoned in to report seeing the kangaroo We thought people were pulling our legs when they first account seeing him , a police spokesman said yesterday. The verb of this idiom is used in the following forms Present Continuous, Present blameless Continuous, knightly Continuous, Past Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect ( Passive Voice). Undoubtedly, the above mentioned forms are the commonest . Thus, the verb in this idiom is used predominantly in several forms, while as a separate word the verb pull can be used in all forms.The imperative mood is possible, but it occurs in negative forms Dont pull my leg. You went to the theatre (A. J. Cronin). In several verbal idioms verbs are used only in the passive voice 1) Be collect to ones fathers euph. To die 2) Be thrown on ones beam-end Coll. To be in a difficult situation, esp. one in which one has no money Many organizations are on their beam ends at the moment because of a lack of public support. But there are idioms which are never used in the passive voice 1) trifle bricks without straw Rather old fash.To elbow grease to do or make something without having the necessary materials 2) Steal a march on smb. to gain an advantage over someone by doing something earlier than expected The disposal had intended to limit the wage increases of all workers to a reasonable amount , but several trade unions stole a march on them by receiving very large increases before the new laws came into existence. beginning rhyme is astray used in verbal idioms. There can be repeat between two sounds and they are divided into ternary groups 1) In the first and the last lexe mes 1. Burn ones boats Coll.To go so far in a course of action that one cannot turn back I changed my mind about giving up my job, but regrettably I had burnt my boats by grave my boss that I was leaving. 2. Get smbs goat Coll. To cause someone much annoyance The way he refuses to admit his mistakes gets my goat. 2) In the last two lexemes 1. Be on ones last legs Coll. To die or to fall down from tiredness or illness ( of an organization) close to ruin about to stop operating Godspell was on its last legs until the influx of tourists postponed its demise until October. . Put ones outperform foot forward Coll. To be firm in ones purpose or desires, e. g. not to allow to do something When are they going to let dull put his foot down and bring the twins back where they snuff it ? 3) In the lexemes, which occupy other positions in an idiom 1. Keep ones cards close to ones government agency Coll. To be very secretive not make known ones advantages all at once He had to keep h is cards close to his chest in order to get the best possible contract. We come across repetition of three sounds very rarely, for example ) deal ones coat concord to ones cloth Coll. To stay put within the limits of what one has or what one can afford, esp. when spending money They have had another baby They will have very little money and will have to cut their coat according to their cloth. 2) Make a mountain out of a molehill to worry about or become excited about matters that are not really important at all Im sure hell give you the money back when he gets paid, so theres no need to start making mountains out of a molehills. relative verbal phraseological units The first components of comparative verbal idioms are used in their literal meaning, while other components are intensifiers and qualifiers, semantic differentiators of the first components. As comparative verbal idioms are not used in the passive voice, so they cant be transformed into sentences, they are eer ph rasemes. These verbal idioms always have a subordinate structure. Comparative verbal idioms are divided into three groups from the semantic point of view 1) Verbs of negative military rating hatred, lie, swear ) Verbs of positive evaluation fit, get on 3) Verbs of a neutral evaluation drink, eat, feel, follow, sleep, speak, spread, talk, treat, work and so on. tending should be paid to the predominance of verbs with a neutral evaluation. In verbal idioms with the verbs of positive and negative evaluation, the second component only empha size of its it 1) Hate smb. like poison to hate smb, very much The general was more interested in his personal exult than in the comfort of the ordinary soldiers, and he was hated like poison by all his men. 2) Swear like a trooper Coll, rather old-fash.To use bad language in an unrestrained manner He swore like a trooper when I complained about his work. 3) Fit smb. like a glove to fit ( a person) perfectly It was clever of you to guess my size correctly the new coat that you bought fits me like a glove. In comparative verbal idioms a second component is expressed by animal names, names of birds, fish and real or imaginative phenomena by which the basis of comparative idioms are expressed 1) Die like a dog Not fml. To die in conditions of great shame, pain, etc. They were in prison for weeks without nutrition and then died like dogs. ) Eat like a horse Coll. To eat a great deal I am underweight and worry about it and although I eat like a horse , it doesnt seem to help . 3) support like cat and dog Coll. To run-in or argue fiercely , esp. very often violent stream says We still love each other very much . But we fight like cat and dog. There are several comparative verbal idioms which refer to people 1) learn a head like a sieve Not fml. To be unable to remember things correctly or keep information in ones mind I was introduced to her twice, but I still cant remember her name Ive got a head like a sie ve.Several verbal idioms never refer to people, for example 1) Sell like hot cakes Coll. To be bought or interpreted quickly, e. g. because of being very universal or cheap Last class she contributed 40 pointings They sell like supreme hot cakes if you only ask 25$. 2) blossom out like wildfire to spread from one person to another very quickly The news show of his success spread like a wildfire among all his friends. Nature of meaning of idioms, including comparative verbal idioms, may vary depending on whether it applies to one object or more than one object. So, a verbal idiom hate smb. like poison to hate smb, very much. in the sentence She hates him like poison. It means that she mortally hates him, but he certainly didnt hate her. His spatial relation towards her is specified in the context. Plurality of objects means mutual hatred. In all the above mentioned comparative verbal idioms , except the idioms with the verbs feel and look , the second component is a l exeme. In several comparative verbal idioms , as a second component, appears not a lexeme, but a combination of lexemes, for example 1) Fight like cat and dog Coll. To quarrel or argue fiercely , esp. very often Flood says We still love each other very much .But we fight like cat and dog. 2) Drop smb. or smth. like a hot potato to get rid of something dangerous, unmanted as quickly as possible When he found out she had no money after all he dropped her like a hot potato. 3) Go ( go off or sell) like hot cakes Coll. To be bought or taken quickly, e. g. because of being very popular or cheap Last year she contributed 40 pointings They sell like absolute hot cakes if you only ask 25$. In some cases, the connection between the first component and combination of lexemes is non prompt , for example 1) Fight like Kilkenny cats Not fml.To fight fiercely Those two children will fight like Kilkenny cats if I leave them alone in the house. Referring to a tommyrot that some soldiers i n the Irish townsfolk of Kilkenny once tied two cats together by their tails and made them fight. The fight was so fierce that all that was left of the cats was their tails. The fight lasted until the end of 19 carbon and led to a mutual destruction. Legend, being the basis for this expression, has been forgotten for a long time, which has created non indigence of the whole phrase in Modern English, since the expression has no meaning in literal sense.Conclusion After analyzing semantics and structure of verbal phraseological units , we come to the following conclusions 1) Idioms, characterized by structural stability and completely or partially transferred meaning , are widely used in the language conducting expressiveness, colour to the thought expressed. The notion of idiomaticity represented by phraseology is of special significance for linguistic survey for it appears in many structural varieties and yields certain distinct patterns some perhaps universal, others characte ristic of one specific language only . ) There is a great difference between free word- groups and idioms. It is considered to be the to the highest degree controversial problem in the field of phraseology. In an idiom words are not independent. They form set-expressions, in which neither words nor the order of words can be changed. Free word-groups are formed in the process of speech according to the standards of the language, while phraseological units exist in the language side by side with separate words. In a free word-group each of its constituents preserves its denotational meaning.In the case of phraseological units provided the denotational meaning belongs to the word group as a single semantically innate unit. 3) The English language is extremely rich in verbal phraseological units. Verbal idioms belong to the class of nominative and nominative communicative phraseological units, due to the fact that some of them are word combinations, while others can be both word combinations and sentences. Verbal idioms can have completely or partially transferred meaning and they are divided into non comparative and comparative idioms. ) The structure of the English verbal phraseological units is variegated. Word groups and phraseological units possess not only the lexical meaning, but also the meaning conveyed generally by the pattern of arrangement of their constituents. Not only the order , but also the substitution of one of the elements may lead to semantic differences or to entirely different phraseological units. 5) Free word combinations can never be polysemantic, while there are polysemantic verbal phraseological units. 6) Among verbal phraseological units there are two top units ( ??????????) .The grammar centre of such units is the verb , the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic centre. These verbal phraseological units can be perfectly idiomatic as well. Bibliog raphy 1. ???????? ?. ??????????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????? ????? ?.?. ??????????????? , 1986. 2. ???????? ?. ??????????? ???????? ??????????????????. ????? , 1973 3. ????????? ?. ????????? ????????????? ??????????. ????? , 2009. 4. ??????? ?. ?. . ?????? ?????????? ???????????. ?????????, 1963 5. ????? ?. ?. ???????????? ??????????? ?????. ??????, 2008. . ??????? ?. ?. , ?????????? ??????????. ??????, 1980 7. ??????????? ?????. ?????????? ??????????. ??????, 1983 8. ???????????? ?. ?. ???????? ? ?????????? ???????????. ??????, 1971 9. ??????? ?. ?. , ???????? ?. ?. , ?????? ?. ?. ????????? ?? ?????????? ????????????, 1974 10. ????? ?. ?. ???? ??????????? ???????????? ??????????? ?????. ??????, 1996 11. ??????? ?. ?.. ??????????? ???????????? ???????????? ?????. ??????, 1987 12. ?????????? ?. ?. ???????????? ??????????? ?????. ?????? , 1998 13. ????? ?. ?.. ??? ????? ???????????? ??????, 1966 14. Antrushina G. B. , Afanasyeva , O. V. , Morozova, N.N. English Lexicology. Mosco w, 1985 15. Arnold I. V. The English word. Moscow, 1986 16. Ginzburg R. S. , Khidekel S. S. A course in Modern English Lexicology. Moscow, 1979 17. Koonin A . English Lexicology. Moscow, 1948 18. Makkai A. Idiom structure in English. The Hague , 1972 19. Minaeva L. English Lexicology and Lexicography. Moscow, 2007 20. Palmer . F. R. Semantics. A new outline , Moscow 1982 Dictionaries 21. ?????????? ?. , ???????? ?. ????? ????? ??????????????? ???????. ??? , 1975 22. ????? ?. ?. ????? ??????? ???????????????? ???????. ??????, 1967 23. Longman dictionary of English idioms.Printed by Butler and Tanner, LTD. London, 1984 24. Oxford dictionary. Oxford University Press, New York, 2007 CHAPTER bingle GENERAL OUTLINE OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS ( PROBLEMS, CLASSIFICATIONS, DEFINITIONS ) Idioms have always attracted the attention of linguists, literary critics, sociologists and philosophers. Enriching the literary language, representing a bright example of purity, accuracy of core and sharpne ss of language, idioms are of great importance in the treasury of culture and have become of genuine interest for linguists and researchers of various spheres of communication.If synonyms can be figuratively referred to as the tints and colours of the phrase, then phraseology is a kind of picture gallery in which are collected vivid and ludicrous sketches of the nations customs, traditions and prejudices, recollections of its past history, and fairy-tales. macrocosm an inseparable part of the language, idioms have a special position within it. They represent what can probably be draw as the most picturesque, colourful and expressive part of the languages vocabulary ( ????????? ?. ?. , ?????????? ?. ?. , ???????? ?. ?. ???????????? ??????????? ?????, 2008 ).The stock of words of the language consists not only of separate words , but also of set expressions, which alongside with separate words serve as means of expressing concepts. There exist two toll which are to denote set exp ressions idioms and phraseological units. An idiom or idiomatic phrase, is often outlined as a phrase, developing a meaning which cannot be readily canvass into the several distinct ideas which would ordinarily be expressed by the words report the phrase. It transcends the ordinary syntactical constructions and must be studied as grammatical unit, or entity ,in itself.On the other hand, idiom is a very broad term and includes all the peculiarities and idiosyncrasies of the language its peculiar syntactical constructions, and other received practices of unusual character. The term idiom is widely used by western scholars, mainly English and American linguists. N. N. Amosov? defines phraseological units as units of fixed context, i. e. phrases with a specific sequence of certain lexical components and peculiar semantic relations between them. In these terms , phraseological units are classified into phrasemes and idioms.Phrasemes are binary phrases in which one of the components ha s a phraseologically bound meaning dependent on the other. Idioms as princely from phrasemes are characterized by integral meaning and idiomaticity of the whole word-group ( ????????? ?. ?. , ?????????? ?. ?. , ???????? ?. ?. , ???????????? ??????????? ?????, 2008 ). According to Rosemarie Glasers theory a phraseological unit is a lexicalized, coherent bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations and may have an emphatic or intensifying function in a text (Glaser R. 998125). Glaser includes both word-like and sentence-like units in the phrasicon, terming word-like units nominations, which designate a phenomenon , an object, an action, a process or state, a property in the outside world, and sentence-like ones propositions, which designate a whole state of affairs in the outside world. She further subdivides nominations into idioms and non-idioms having transparent meanings, and in cluding technical terms, cliches, etc. ( ????????? ?. , ????????? ????????????? ?????????? , 2009 ).Attempts have been made to approach phraseology in different ways. There is a inequality of opinions as to the nature and essential features of phraseological units, how to distinguish them from free word groups, how to define and how to classify them. This is probably the most discussed and one of the most important problems in the field of phraseology. The complexity of the problem may be largely accounted for by the fact that the borderline between free word-groups and phraseological units is not clearly defined.The so called free word-groups are but relatively free as collocability of member-words is fundamentally define by their lexical and grammatical valency which makes at least some of them very close to set-phrases. Phraseological units are but relatively stable and semantically inseparable. Between the extremes of complete motivating and variability of member-words an d lack of motivation combined with complete stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure there are innumerable borderline cases. However, the existing terms, e. g. et-phrases, idioms, word-equivalents, reflect to a certain extent the main debatable issues of phraseology which centre in the divergent views concerning the nature and essential features of phraseological units as distinguished from the so-called free word-groups. The term set-phrase implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups. The term idiom generally implies that the essential feature of linguistic units under term is idiomaticity or lack of motivation.This term habitually used by English and American linguists is very often treated as synonymous with the term phraseological unit. The term word-equivalent stresses not only semantic but also functional inseparability of certain word-groups, their aptness to function in speech as single words. The criterion of stability of lexical components and idiomaticity of word-groups are viewed as not necessarily coexistent in phraseological units. It is argued that stability of lexical components does not presuppose lack of motivation.It follows that stability and idiomaticity are regarded as two different aspects of word-groups. perceptual constancy is an essential feature of set-phrases both incite and non- prompt. Idiomaticity is a distinguishing feature of phraseological units or idioms which bear both stable set-phrases and variable word-groups. The two features are not mutually exclusive and may be overlapping, but are not interdependent. Word-groups are structurally complex units consisting of formally separable elements, which are functionally equivalent to separate words.So they are independent parts of the sentence. Whereas in an idiom words are not independent. They form set-expressions, in which neither words nor the order of words can be changed. Free word-groups are formed in the process of speech according to the standards of the language, while phraseological units exist in the language side by side with separate words. In a free word-group each of its constituents preserves its denotational meaning. In the case of phraseological units however the denotational meaning belongs to the word group as a single semantically inseparable unit.Its worth mentioning that idiom is a complex phenomenon with a number of features, which can therefore be approached from different points of view. Hence, there exist a extensive number of different classification systems devised by different scholars and based upon different principles. The oldest principle for classifying idioms is based on their original depicted object and is known as thematic (this term however is not universally accepted). On this principle, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin. The word source refers to the particular sphere of human activity, of life, of nature.The thematic principle of classifying idioms has a real merit, but it does not take into consideration the linguistic features of the idioms. The first classification system, which was based on semantic principle, was suggested by acad. V. V. Vinogradov, who demonstrable some points first advanced by the Swiss scientist Charles Bally. Acad. V. V. Vinogradov spoke of the semantic change in idioms as a meaning resulting from a peculiar chemical combination of words. He described idioms as lexical complexes which cannot be freely made up in speech, but are reproduced as ready-made units.The meaning of such expressions as distinguished from the meaning of free combinations is idiomatic. The classification is based on the motivation of the unit. According to the degree of idiomatic meaning of various groups of idioms ,V. V. Vinogradov classified them as follows ( Arnold V. , The English Word, 1986 ) Phraseological fusions units whose meaning cannot be dedu ced from the meanings of their component parts, the meaning of phraseological fusions is unmotivated at the present stage of language development. The meaning of the components is completely enwrapped by the meaning of the whole.The metaphor, on which the time out of meaning is based , has lost its lucidness and is obscure. Phraseological unities units with a completely changed meaning. They are motivated units or, putting it another way , the meaning of the whole unit can be deduced from the meanings of constituent parts. The metaphor, on which the shift of meaning is based, is clear and transparent. Phraseological combinations traditional units which are not only motivated, but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used figuratively. Prof.Smirnitsky considers a phraseological unit to be similar to the word because of the idiomatic relationships between its parts resulting in semantic unity and permitting its introduction into speech as something complete. He differentiated three classes of stereotyped phrases (????? ?. ?. , ???????????? ??????????? ?????, 2008 ) 1) Traditional phrases 2) Phraseological combinations 3) Idioms Traditional phrases, which are characterized by reproducibility, are not regarded as word-equivalents. They are usual collocations whose inner form is transparent. They are distinguished as follows 1)Verbal ) strong 3) Adjectival 4) Adverbial 5) Interjectional Smirnitskys notion of word-equivalence actually allows another perspective on phraseological units too. Namely, proceeding from the classification of words into derivatives and compounds, the linguist seeks to find similar structural and semantic features in phraseological units as well, correspondingly singling out units with one semantic centre(one summit units) on the one hand, which he compared with derived words, and with two or more semantic centres (two summit and multi-summit units), on the other, which he compared with compound words.E ach of the two groups of this structural semantic classification is further subdivided according to the part of speech to which t